11 Circle Expressions

11 Circle Expressions 11 Circle Expressions 11 Circle Expressions By Maeve Maddox A circle is a completely round plane figure. The way that a circle might be attracted from start to finish without a break makes it a ground-breaking image. The word hover happens in numerous English maxims, frequently as an image of completeness or redundancy. 1. the hover of life: the pattern of proliferation and endurance, from birth to death. 2. hover of hellfire: a position of discipline in the great beyond, from The Inferno. Dante depicts nine circles or zones in which spirits are rebuffed by the idea of their transgressions. 3. family circle: a showy term to depict the seating region farthest from the stage (otherwise known as â€Å"upper circle†). By and large use, family hover alludes to a person’s nearest relatives. The word circle can allude to any close gathering of companions. The articulation â€Å"inner circle† alludes to a little powerful gathering of individuals who run things in legislative issues, business, or something like that. 4. endless loop: in rationale, an endless loop results when a bogus reason is trailed by a genuine reason. When all is said in done use, an endless loop alludes to a circumstance wherein no advancement or improvement can be made. In some cases the articulation â€Å"vicious cycle† is utilized. 5. to totally dominate: to outperform with little exertion. Comparable term: â€Å"to run rings round.† 6. to end up at ground zero: to finish a progression of occasions; to return to one’s beginning spot. 7. to go around and around: to rehash a similar activity without showing up at the ideal spot. 8. to square the hover: to endeavor the inconceivable. Different articulations draw on the action word circle, â€Å"to put a hover around something† or â€Å"to move in a roundabout direction.† 9. to circle the channel: to be in transit out. The picture is that of the remainder of the water depleting from a bath. 10. to circle the subject: to abstain from saying anything explicit regarding a subject of conversation. 11. to circle the carts: to take a protective position. The picture is that of moving American pioneers masterminding their carts around as a blockade against assaulting Indians. Note: The articulation â€Å"to circle the wagons† is seen oftentimes in features and in articles about financial matters. The market analysts appear to see the American economy â€Å"as a post, a hover of carts, asâ it were, that can be promptly characterized and defended† (Robert Reno, Newsday). Contemporary American Indians frequently discover this articulation hostile. Here are a few instances of these articulations accumulated from the Web: Raising Backyard Chickens to Teach Children the Circle of Life In the event that the way to distribution is involved all the circles of heck, the main circle, I am letting you know, is the â€Å"not directly for me† or â€Å"didn’t interface with the voice† circle. Our earnest considerations and supplications are with the Paisley family and the more extensive family circle. The conditions exist for an endless loop including casting a ballot and community obligation, whereby nonvoters decline their faith in the significance of casting a ballot and in this way gotten less inclined to cast a ballot in future races. Beam Allen Running Circles Around Garnett, Pierce, Nets up until now Fifteen years back, Ana Patricia Botã ­n was pushed out of her senior occupation at Banco Santanderâ â by the banks administrator, who additionally happened to be her dad. On Wednesday, Ms. Botã ­ns profession ended up at ground zero, with her being named chairmanâ after her dads abrupt passing. To be reasonable and to bring the story round trip, huge numbers of Browns achievements had their sources in Browns organizations during the 1970s and mid 80s.â Washington state goes around and around over automaton guidelines. Benefits and Social Care for the Elderly: Trying to Square the Circle Orbiting the Drain: Can the Euro Be Saved, Or Is It Doomed? There’s been a great deal of talk this year about web based learning at Concordia. Leading body of Governors and Senate gatherings continue circumnavigating the subject. US speculators circle the carts, trust Fed rides to protect Need to improve your English in a short time a day? Get a membership and begin accepting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Expressions classification, check our well known posts, or pick a related post below:Inquire versus EnquireThat versus WhichWords Often Misspelled Because of Double Letters

Sales promotion campaign Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Deals advancement crusade - Essay Example The fundamental objective segment is contained basically of upwardly versatile working class cushy laborers keen on keeping up a specific status of progress who ordinarily as of now have all around characterized thoughts of what sorts of beverages are fitting for their situation throughout everyday life. As per Hugh Archibald, executive of the National Association of Cider Makers, â€Å"drinkers in England have a profound established impression of juice as a provincial ‘alternative’ drink† (refered to in C&C, n.d.). Perceiving an incentive in an item is a quality most Britons highly esteem, especially in the bigger urban areas among the prime segment gathering. Among these customers, picture is significant in assisting with building up this view of value. â€Å"UK buyers think about quality, they have a specialist information on natural items and what is beneficial for them. They comprehend that quality is important† (Vyse, 2005). On the off chance that Magners can situate itself as an item that offers higher caliber and in this way more prominent incentive for the cash spent, it can rehash its Ireland accomplishment all through Great Britain also. It will be the goal of this battle to support deals of Magners Cider in Great Britain to mirror a closer r elationship to the 24% piece of the pie right now appreciated in Scotland. To point out the natural idea of Magners Cider while as yet accentuating a cutting edge offer, a business crusade that centers around tending to present day issues and innovations ought to be used. To bring the focal point of the customer onto the apples utilized in the creation procedure, Magners can print up specific bundling that incorporates a unique apple symbol signifying a level of the business cost will be given to a children’s good cause gathering. For those customers who buy their juice fundamentally at the bars, particular apple special materials can be made that can distinguish those bars

Importance of Understanding Culture in International MA

Importance of Understanding Culture in International MA We can name several huge mergers that ultimately failed, and we can also point out several reasons for these failures. It could be that there is a lack of forward-thinking among the parties involved, or it could also be that not enough research was conducted to fully justify the merger or acquisition. In some cases, the two companies have completely opposing visions, and they do not really meet halfway, enough to merit business integration, or to make one work. Poor governance and weak leadership are also instrumental in single-handedly destroying a deal, and poor communication among the parties will only drive the nail even further. These are all true, even when we speak of MA on a larger scale, specifically international MA. © Shutterstock.com | Vector GoddessIn this article, we will explore 1) international MA and 2) the role of culture in international MA, take a look at an example of 3) Daimler with Crysler and Mitsubishi, and finalize with 4) contributing factors to cultural integration.INTERNATIONAL MAThe increasing activity in international markets is continuously stirring the global business landscape, tempting more and more businesses to get a piece of the action. Thus, they look into various international market entry strategies and entering into cross-border transactions, with their eyes set on creating, or being part of, a global network of businesses. It’s simple, really. Entry into new markets means greater opportunities, faster growth, and higher profit.The Wall Street Journal is touting 2015 to be the “biggest MA year ever”, with 112 deals announced in the beginning of December 2015, involving small to large companies from all over the world. Data providers said that the global MA v olume is now estimated at $4.304 trillion.Some of the international MA deals announced include the acquisition of London’s SABMiller plc by Anheuser-Busch InBev for $108 billion. The Belgium-based company is currently the world’s largest brewer, and SABMiller happens to be the second-largest brewer, in terms of revenue. Another international MA that is getting a lot of press is the acquisition of Pfizer Inc. of Dublin-based Allergan PLC for around $160 billion.Granted, these MA deals have only been announced, and whether they will succeed or not will be seen in the coming months. There is still that probability that the MA will not close, and it could be due to several reasons, most of which have been mentioned earlier.Some of the main reasons for failure of international MAs include:Lack of involvement of the owners, who are operating under the assumption that, once they hire professional advisors to oversee the deal, their work is done. That is not the case, because the adviso rs are only supposed to provide advice and assistance; it is the owners who must be directly involved every step of the way.Unrealistic expectations. On paper, the numbers may look good, and anyone looking at it may think that there is no way the deal will not succeed. However, due to lack of research and realistic analysis, the theoretical valuation may not coincide with the practical proposition of the benefits that are expected to arise from the merger.Poor execution of the integration process. Many think that the deal is done once the integration has been performed; they fail to consider the post-merger integration stage, where there are still critical areas that need to be addressed. After the merger, there may be inefficiencies that fail to be dealt with immediately, so the integration is not as clear as they would have wanted.Cost inefficiencies. It is possible for the companies undergoing integration to hemorrhage cash during the integration. They may end up investing more t han they can actually earn back in the long run, which is a sure way to make the deal fail. These may also arise from errors incurred during the negotiation process.But there is one factor that is seen by most as the most pervasive reason for failure, particularly in international MA: culture.THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN INTERNATIONAL MACulture, by itself, cannot be seen as a reason for international MA deals failing to close, or giving the results expected by the parties after the integration. What makes culture a stumbling block in many MA deals are the differences that arise during the integration.The term “culture” is not strictly confined to the set of characteristics or norms that differentiate one country or nationality to another (although national culture can also get in the way of MA, as will be discussed later). When we say culture in the context of international MA, it specifically means the cultural gap in the corporate or organizational cultures of the merging companies. Organizational culture refers to that set of values, norms and assumptions that govern how the people within an organization act, interact, and work on a daily basis.MA denotes a partnership, or a relationship that both will benefit from. In order for a solid relationship to establish, it is important to know who your partner is. Looking at their culture is one way to go about it.In order to understand the importance of culture awareness when it comes to international MA, let us look into its role, or how it shapes mergers and acquisitions.Culture â€" whether national or organizational culture â€" will give you a clearer understanding on a company’s way of doing business. Much of the daily and regular operations of a business are driven by culture, and you will be able to feel a bit more of the “pulse” of a business by first acquainting yourself with their culture.Understanding culture will provide explanations on what the target company does differently from the acquiring co mpany. But it is not enough that you know what the differences are; the most important part is understanding why these differences exist. By understanding their culture, you will be in a better position to figure out whether the two companies will be compatible, and also get an indication on the level of success of the MA.Since culture essentially refers to the way of doing things, it also means that it affects how a business is managed. Many cross-border MAs have failed, pointing to mismanagement as the main reason. However, when they dig deeper, it is often seen that the new manager had a management style that was deemed unfamiliar by the workforce. A classic example was the failure of the US’ Walmart when it attempted to enter Germany by acquiring two German companies â€" Wertkauf and Interspar â€" in 1997 and 1998, respectively. The Germans questioned the leadership of the American managers, because they simply did not understand that it is how the Americans do it.The culture of the target company is also indicative of the culture of the market being entered. If there is anyone who knows the market best, it is the company that actually operates in it. Therefore, one way to gain an understanding of the market is by looking at the culture of the company being acquired or merged with.DAIMLER WITH CHRYSLER AND MITSUBISHIAutomobile giant Daimler is a good example of international MA gone wrong, when it was involved in a couple of major cross-border or international deals: first with Chrysler, and then with Mitsubishi.DaimlerChysler AGLet us first take a look at one of the pivotal and most publicized international MA deals that went south due to cultural differences.The merger between Daimler and Chrysler in 1998 made waves in the global business landscape. Here, you have two of the largest automobile manufacturers in the world â€" Germany’s Daimler and United States’ Chrysler â€" merging as “equals”. It was even called by many as a “marriage made in heaven”. The result was DaimlerChrysler AG.In 2007, barely 10 years after the historic merge, the two companies decided to split, with Daimler selling Chrysler to Cerberus Capital Management for over $6 billion.Cultural differences were identified as the main culprit of the failure of the $38 billion merger between these two giants. Apparently, there was a wide cultural gap in the two companies’ corporate cultures. Daimler’s was described as “conservative, efficient, and safe”. The Detroit-based company Chrysler, on the other hand, was “daring, diverse, and creating”.One difference that was cited was the attitude of the employees to hierarchy. Over at Daimler, they are used to having a clear and unambiguous chain of command. The ranking persons of authority are at the top, and they deserve all the respect from the subordinates below them. Chrysler, however, utilizes a more egalitarian approach, encouraging a team-oriented atmosphere among its people.This is bound to b e problematic for Chrysler, which is not used to having to kowtow to anyone in authority. There was also the fact that some were not entirely convinced that it was a merger of equals between the two companies. Some critics said that, rather than an equal merger, it was Daimler acquiring Chrysler, so there was an expectation that Chrysler should adhere to the culture of the former. This naturally led to mistrust between the groups of employees of the two companies. It certainly did not help any when the Daimler executives were seen as “high-handed” in imposing their culture on the people of Chrysler.There was also the difference between how the two companies viewed what is important to their clients. According to Daimler, customers value reliability in their automobiles, and they expect nothing less than the best quality. Chrysler, the daring and creative one, insisted that customers prefer more flash and style, so it put more emphasis on the designs and competitive pricing. As a result, they were not coordinate or cohesive on how the manufacturing process should go, resulting in division.Daimler and MitsubishiThis is a classic case of national culture causing differences between two companies in an MA. After the merge, DaimlerChrysler wanted to enter the Asian market, and what better way to do that than by striking an alliance with one of the major players in the Asian automotive market?DaimlerChrysler started an alliance with Mitsubishi Motors and, right off the bat, the major differences between German culture and Japanese culture were causing conflicts. Daimler either did not care, or they were not aware, of the Japanese “way of doing business”.The Japan business culture was deeply grounded on trust, empathy and paying attention to how others are feeling. German business culture is more on the pragmatic side, putting more stock on facts and figures, and paying little to no heed to personal relationships.The Japanese workforce of Mitsubishi Alliance also did not take kindly to the people of Daimler barging in and giving orders as if they are in their home turf. The Japanese tend to be territorial, and this applies to business as well. Having complete strangers telling them what to do â€" in their own territory â€" clearly did not sit well with them.There was also a marked difference in the orientation of the two cultures in terms of their goals. The Japanese are more long-term oriented, meaning they are patient, so they were not easily swayed by the initial difficulties that besieged Mitsubishi Motors at the time. Daimler, however, was looking at the short-term. They saw the financial difficulties as indications that the company is not in good shape financially. Since they were not seeing immediate profits coming in, they saw no point in investing further. This resulted to the two companies being more distant than ever, leading to the dissolution of their alliance.In both cases, Daimler’s aggressive “it’s our way or the h ighway” attitude in leading posed problems, since they were imposed on cultures that were not used to it.CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CULTURAL INTEGRATIONLike it or not, culture has a great impact on business. It also goes without saying that, in MA, cultural integration takes a lot of work. It’s actually quite a sensitive area that people engaged in MA must tread with caution. Here are some factors that would make cultural integration smoother, paving the way for international MA deals.Awareness of partner’s corporate and national culture. Knowing who your potential business partner is means looking into how they do business, and how their unique national or regular culture influence the way they do things.Leadership and leadership support. Understand how they lead, if there is a chain of command and how it works. This entails getting a feel of their business hierarchy, or how authority is established and followed through. It is also highly advised that the integration take steps to empower local management. Employees of an acquired company may be aware of, and accepting of the fact, that they have been acquired by another company, and that there are bound to be changes. However, it takes time for them to get used to new leadership and new leadership styles. By empowering local management, they will have a smoother transition, and help facilitate the integration.Skills and training. People governed by a certain organizational culture are likely to have a different way of acquiring skills and expertise. By knowing what these are, the potential partners will be in better positions to reconfigure the organizational framework that will best benefit the new partnership.Sufficiency and consistency of communication. Communication is one of the most important ingredients of a successful business. By bridging cultural differences, you are also encouraging the smooth flow of communication and, in the process, facilitating the buildup of trust between and among the emp loyees of the two companies.When undergoing global or international MA, there are possible two ways to prevent cultural differences from destroying a potentially successful merger or acquisition.Agree to set aside cultural differences. This is the aggressive tack, since it literally forces the parties to ignore the cultural issues that may arise.Allow the local business to run its unit, while keeping profit targets and strategy clear.Often, the acquiring company would want to maintain its own culture, or have its own culture prevail over that of the acquired company. This was what took place with DaimlerChrysler AG. Daimler wanted to enforce its organizational culture on Chrysler.Where did it go wrong? There are several possibilities, which include the attitude adopted by Daimler when trying to enforce its culture, and how it went about infusing Chrysler’s culture into its own.In the process of evaluating a potential MA, it is highly recommended that the companies thoroughly asses s the culture of their target company or acquisition. More specifically, they should evaluate whether the culture of the target acquisition is compatible with theirs. Not only will this smoothen the integration, but increase the chances of the merger or acquisition becoming successful and profitable in the long run.Whatever decision was made by the merging companies, it is important to choose only one culture, and commit to it. The parties should sit down and have a good talk about it, reveal the gaps that they are faced with and reconcile if there is a need to do so, and put the chosen culture into practice. Managing the culture actively is the next phase, and this is left in the hands of the managers and executives of the companies.Culture clashes are already a given in any international or cross-border MA. They could make or break the entire MA process. Thus, it is important to pay as much attention to culture as you do to other aspects of MA.

Importance of Understanding Culture in International MA

Importance of Understanding Culture in International MA We can name several huge mergers that ultimately failed, and we can also point out several reasons for these failures. It could be that there is a lack of forward-thinking among the parties involved, or it could also be that not enough research was conducted to fully justify the merger or acquisition. In some cases, the two companies have completely opposing visions, and they do not really meet halfway, enough to merit business integration, or to make one work. Poor governance and weak leadership are also instrumental in single-handedly destroying a deal, and poor communication among the parties will only drive the nail even further. These are all true, even when we speak of MA on a larger scale, specifically international MA. © Shutterstock.com | Vector GoddessIn this article, we will explore 1) international MA and 2) the role of culture in international MA, take a look at an example of 3) Daimler with Crysler and Mitsubishi, and finalize with 4) contributing factors to cultural integration.INTERNATIONAL MAThe increasing activity in international markets is continuously stirring the global business landscape, tempting more and more businesses to get a piece of the action. Thus, they look into various international market entry strategies and entering into cross-border transactions, with their eyes set on creating, or being part of, a global network of businesses. It’s simple, really. Entry into new markets means greater opportunities, faster growth, and higher profit.The Wall Street Journal is touting 2015 to be the “biggest MA year ever”, with 112 deals announced in the beginning of December 2015, involving small to large companies from all over the world. Data providers said that the global MA v olume is now estimated at $4.304 trillion.Some of the international MA deals announced include the acquisition of London’s SABMiller plc by Anheuser-Busch InBev for $108 billion. The Belgium-based company is currently the world’s largest brewer, and SABMiller happens to be the second-largest brewer, in terms of revenue. Another international MA that is getting a lot of press is the acquisition of Pfizer Inc. of Dublin-based Allergan PLC for around $160 billion.Granted, these MA deals have only been announced, and whether they will succeed or not will be seen in the coming months. There is still that probability that the MA will not close, and it could be due to several reasons, most of which have been mentioned earlier.Some of the main reasons for failure of international MAs include:Lack of involvement of the owners, who are operating under the assumption that, once they hire professional advisors to oversee the deal, their work is done. That is not the case, because the adviso rs are only supposed to provide advice and assistance; it is the owners who must be directly involved every step of the way.Unrealistic expectations. On paper, the numbers may look good, and anyone looking at it may think that there is no way the deal will not succeed. However, due to lack of research and realistic analysis, the theoretical valuation may not coincide with the practical proposition of the benefits that are expected to arise from the merger.Poor execution of the integration process. Many think that the deal is done once the integration has been performed; they fail to consider the post-merger integration stage, where there are still critical areas that need to be addressed. After the merger, there may be inefficiencies that fail to be dealt with immediately, so the integration is not as clear as they would have wanted.Cost inefficiencies. It is possible for the companies undergoing integration to hemorrhage cash during the integration. They may end up investing more t han they can actually earn back in the long run, which is a sure way to make the deal fail. These may also arise from errors incurred during the negotiation process.But there is one factor that is seen by most as the most pervasive reason for failure, particularly in international MA: culture.THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN INTERNATIONAL MACulture, by itself, cannot be seen as a reason for international MA deals failing to close, or giving the results expected by the parties after the integration. What makes culture a stumbling block in many MA deals are the differences that arise during the integration.The term “culture” is not strictly confined to the set of characteristics or norms that differentiate one country or nationality to another (although national culture can also get in the way of MA, as will be discussed later). When we say culture in the context of international MA, it specifically means the cultural gap in the corporate or organizational cultures of the merging companies. Organizational culture refers to that set of values, norms and assumptions that govern how the people within an organization act, interact, and work on a daily basis.MA denotes a partnership, or a relationship that both will benefit from. In order for a solid relationship to establish, it is important to know who your partner is. Looking at their culture is one way to go about it.In order to understand the importance of culture awareness when it comes to international MA, let us look into its role, or how it shapes mergers and acquisitions.Culture â€" whether national or organizational culture â€" will give you a clearer understanding on a company’s way of doing business. Much of the daily and regular operations of a business are driven by culture, and you will be able to feel a bit more of the “pulse” of a business by first acquainting yourself with their culture.Understanding culture will provide explanations on what the target company does differently from the acquiring co mpany. But it is not enough that you know what the differences are; the most important part is understanding why these differences exist. By understanding their culture, you will be in a better position to figure out whether the two companies will be compatible, and also get an indication on the level of success of the MA.Since culture essentially refers to the way of doing things, it also means that it affects how a business is managed. Many cross-border MAs have failed, pointing to mismanagement as the main reason. However, when they dig deeper, it is often seen that the new manager had a management style that was deemed unfamiliar by the workforce. A classic example was the failure of the US’ Walmart when it attempted to enter Germany by acquiring two German companies â€" Wertkauf and Interspar â€" in 1997 and 1998, respectively. The Germans questioned the leadership of the American managers, because they simply did not understand that it is how the Americans do it.The culture of the target company is also indicative of the culture of the market being entered. If there is anyone who knows the market best, it is the company that actually operates in it. Therefore, one way to gain an understanding of the market is by looking at the culture of the company being acquired or merged with.DAIMLER WITH CHRYSLER AND MITSUBISHIAutomobile giant Daimler is a good example of international MA gone wrong, when it was involved in a couple of major cross-border or international deals: first with Chrysler, and then with Mitsubishi.DaimlerChysler AGLet us first take a look at one of the pivotal and most publicized international MA deals that went south due to cultural differences.The merger between Daimler and Chrysler in 1998 made waves in the global business landscape. Here, you have two of the largest automobile manufacturers in the world â€" Germany’s Daimler and United States’ Chrysler â€" merging as “equals”. It was even called by many as a “marriage made in heaven”. The result was DaimlerChrysler AG.In 2007, barely 10 years after the historic merge, the two companies decided to split, with Daimler selling Chrysler to Cerberus Capital Management for over $6 billion.Cultural differences were identified as the main culprit of the failure of the $38 billion merger between these two giants. Apparently, there was a wide cultural gap in the two companies’ corporate cultures. Daimler’s was described as “conservative, efficient, and safe”. The Detroit-based company Chrysler, on the other hand, was “daring, diverse, and creating”.One difference that was cited was the attitude of the employees to hierarchy. Over at Daimler, they are used to having a clear and unambiguous chain of command. The ranking persons of authority are at the top, and they deserve all the respect from the subordinates below them. Chrysler, however, utilizes a more egalitarian approach, encouraging a team-oriented atmosphere among its people.This is bound to b e problematic for Chrysler, which is not used to having to kowtow to anyone in authority. There was also the fact that some were not entirely convinced that it was a merger of equals between the two companies. Some critics said that, rather than an equal merger, it was Daimler acquiring Chrysler, so there was an expectation that Chrysler should adhere to the culture of the former. This naturally led to mistrust between the groups of employees of the two companies. It certainly did not help any when the Daimler executives were seen as “high-handed” in imposing their culture on the people of Chrysler.There was also the difference between how the two companies viewed what is important to their clients. According to Daimler, customers value reliability in their automobiles, and they expect nothing less than the best quality. Chrysler, the daring and creative one, insisted that customers prefer more flash and style, so it put more emphasis on the designs and competitive pricing. As a result, they were not coordinate or cohesive on how the manufacturing process should go, resulting in division.Daimler and MitsubishiThis is a classic case of national culture causing differences between two companies in an MA. After the merge, DaimlerChrysler wanted to enter the Asian market, and what better way to do that than by striking an alliance with one of the major players in the Asian automotive market?DaimlerChrysler started an alliance with Mitsubishi Motors and, right off the bat, the major differences between German culture and Japanese culture were causing conflicts. Daimler either did not care, or they were not aware, of the Japanese “way of doing business”.The Japan business culture was deeply grounded on trust, empathy and paying attention to how others are feeling. German business culture is more on the pragmatic side, putting more stock on facts and figures, and paying little to no heed to personal relationships.The Japanese workforce of Mitsubishi Alliance also did not take kindly to the people of Daimler barging in and giving orders as if they are in their home turf. The Japanese tend to be territorial, and this applies to business as well. Having complete strangers telling them what to do â€" in their own territory â€" clearly did not sit well with them.There was also a marked difference in the orientation of the two cultures in terms of their goals. The Japanese are more long-term oriented, meaning they are patient, so they were not easily swayed by the initial difficulties that besieged Mitsubishi Motors at the time. Daimler, however, was looking at the short-term. They saw the financial difficulties as indications that the company is not in good shape financially. Since they were not seeing immediate profits coming in, they saw no point in investing further. This resulted to the two companies being more distant than ever, leading to the dissolution of their alliance.In both cases, Daimler’s aggressive “it’s our way or the h ighway” attitude in leading posed problems, since they were imposed on cultures that were not used to it.CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CULTURAL INTEGRATIONLike it or not, culture has a great impact on business. It also goes without saying that, in MA, cultural integration takes a lot of work. It’s actually quite a sensitive area that people engaged in MA must tread with caution. Here are some factors that would make cultural integration smoother, paving the way for international MA deals.Awareness of partner’s corporate and national culture. Knowing who your potential business partner is means looking into how they do business, and how their unique national or regular culture influence the way they do things.Leadership and leadership support. Understand how they lead, if there is a chain of command and how it works. This entails getting a feel of their business hierarchy, or how authority is established and followed through. It is also highly advised that the integration take steps to empower local management. Employees of an acquired company may be aware of, and accepting of the fact, that they have been acquired by another company, and that there are bound to be changes. However, it takes time for them to get used to new leadership and new leadership styles. By empowering local management, they will have a smoother transition, and help facilitate the integration.Skills and training. People governed by a certain organizational culture are likely to have a different way of acquiring skills and expertise. By knowing what these are, the potential partners will be in better positions to reconfigure the organizational framework that will best benefit the new partnership.Sufficiency and consistency of communication. Communication is one of the most important ingredients of a successful business. By bridging cultural differences, you are also encouraging the smooth flow of communication and, in the process, facilitating the buildup of trust between and among the emp loyees of the two companies.When undergoing global or international MA, there are possible two ways to prevent cultural differences from destroying a potentially successful merger or acquisition.Agree to set aside cultural differences. This is the aggressive tack, since it literally forces the parties to ignore the cultural issues that may arise.Allow the local business to run its unit, while keeping profit targets and strategy clear.Often, the acquiring company would want to maintain its own culture, or have its own culture prevail over that of the acquired company. This was what took place with DaimlerChrysler AG. Daimler wanted to enforce its organizational culture on Chrysler.Where did it go wrong? There are several possibilities, which include the attitude adopted by Daimler when trying to enforce its culture, and how it went about infusing Chrysler’s culture into its own.In the process of evaluating a potential MA, it is highly recommended that the companies thoroughly asses s the culture of their target company or acquisition. More specifically, they should evaluate whether the culture of the target acquisition is compatible with theirs. Not only will this smoothen the integration, but increase the chances of the merger or acquisition becoming successful and profitable in the long run.Whatever decision was made by the merging companies, it is important to choose only one culture, and commit to it. The parties should sit down and have a good talk about it, reveal the gaps that they are faced with and reconcile if there is a need to do so, and put the chosen culture into practice. Managing the culture actively is the next phase, and this is left in the hands of the managers and executives of the companies.Culture clashes are already a given in any international or cross-border MA. They could make or break the entire MA process. Thus, it is important to pay as much attention to culture as you do to other aspects of MA.

Essay Viewing Terrorism through Social Psychology

Acts of terrorism are becoming increasingly common in todays society. From the frequent suicide bombings in Israel, the recent violence in the Russian village of Beslan, to the attacks on the world trade centers on September the eleventh of 2001 that so violently shook the world; terrorism is rarely far from our minds. Terrorist groups have a variety of aims, acts of revenge, politics, but by far the most common, and arguably most disturbing reason for these actions is religion. It is exceptionally important that we can learn to understand the forces that drive people to commit such wanton acts of destruction, and social psychology can help us to do that. Social psychology is a diverse field of study, it is the scientific†¦show more content†¦The teachers were then taken to another room with a scientist, where they could hear but not see the learners. The learners were asked a series of questions and if a wrong answer was given the teacher was asked to give an electric shock, of increasing power with each incorrect answer, as punishment. While many of the participants seemed unhappy with carrying out this task none of them stopped, especially after the scientist present said that it was their duty to continue this action, and in fact many increased the voltage to levels none of the experimenters predicted. This experiment was repeated with the learners in view, and while the teachers were less willing they still continued the punishment. This is demonstrative of the power of persuasion by authority figures. Milgrams research into the obedience of authority shows how simple it is to influence someones thoughts and actions, to the point where they are willing to commit great harm against other humans. All that is required is a certain amount of charisma and a commanding manner. This experiment was a clear example of the effect of the immediate social context, it shows how the immediate influence of an authoritarian presence can drive an individual to acts of violence. It is interesting to note that most terrorists (with the exception of suicide bombers) act in pairs or small groups (it was a cold February night when Rev. Michael Bray and a friend, aShow MoreRelatedRacial Bias From The Console1273 Words   |  6 PagesEast, where the player must combat against terrorism. These video games can heavily reinforce one’s perception of outgroup members as well as indirectly influence one’s behavior during social interaction (McConnell and Leibold). Although explicit racism brings negative stigmatization, most people possess unconscious bias favoring in-group members. In one study, white subjects showed higher activation in the amygdala, a region related to fear, when viewing African-American faces than white faces (Bosman)Read MoreEssay on The Religious Terrorist1509 Words   |  7 PagesSubstantive Analysis: Introduction: Terrorism is used around the world to create fear and influence the public on political views (Siegel, 489). There are four views of terrorism including the psychological view, socialization view, ideological view, and the alienation view. A religious terrorist would most likely fit under the ideological view. 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Australia s Health Care System - 1054 Words

3.0 Analysis Analysing the medical several aspects need to be adventured; who does the Medicare System apply to, why is it put into place and what does it involve? How is it governed, funded and regulated? And the current issue within the system which need to be addressed. Who does the Medicare System apply to, why is it put into place and what does it involve? According to the World Health Organization, a health system is all relating activities whose primary purpose is to promote, maintain and aid the health and wellbeing of people (WHO 2013b). Furthermore, good health systems deliver quality services to all people within the country, when and where it’s needed. While the array of services vary from country to country, common elements included consist of a trained workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies as well as well-maintained facilities and mechanisms to deliver quality medicines and technologies (WHO 2013a). 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Accounting treatment for capitalizing Free Essays

Thank you for CA for accounting treatment in regards to your venture capital stake in Historiographers (Western). In our introductory meeting, you requested this firm to research on the accounting treatment for capitalizing the accumulated Meatball marketing consultancy charges uncured and the staff salaries. I am able to confirm that the marketing consultancy charges and the staff salaries can be capitalized and amortized over more than one taxpayer. We will write a custom essay sample on Accounting treatment for capitalizing or any similar topic only for you Order Now In reaching this conclusion, I referred to relevant authority from codifications from the Financial Accounting Standards Board. In addition, I have also reviewed the documents provided to this firm during our earlier meeting. Facts The facts as was provided to us are as follows: Western hired a high-priced marketing consultancy company, Medievalist, to come-up with an integrated marketing strategy for computer game â€Å"Project. † Medievalist was tasked to develop a very catchy slogan that Western will use in a multimillion dollar advertising campaign long with other things. Before the winning slogan was developed, they had presented others that Western rejected as unsuitable for Project’s image. Therefore, Western has Incurred a marketing expense of $750,000. Western wants to capitalize charges for the rejected phrases but they reason that the rejected phrases were an integral part of developing the winning slogan. Western will also capitalize the costs of staff salaries of $300,000 for the time they spent in meetings with Medievalist. Western intends to amortize the capitalized amounts over the expected product-life f the game. Applicable Codifications The applicable codifications from Financial Accounting Standards Board (FAST) which addresses Westerns plans to capitalize the accumulated Medievalist charges and capitalize the staff salaries are as follows. Codification paragraph 720-15-55-3: The following costs that might be incurred in conjunction with start-up activities are subject to the provisions of this Subtopic a. Travel costs, employee salary-related costs, and consulting costs related to feasibility studies, accounting, legal, tax, and governmental affairs. Codification paragraph 720-15-45-1: Because is marketed to others, the expense shall be charged to cost of sales or a similar expense category. Codification paragraph 720-15-45-2: In an entity’s balance sheet, capitalized software costs having a life of more than one year or one operating cycle shall be presented as another asset because the costs are an amortize intangible asset. Analysis Based on the provided facts of your venture stake in Western, it is clear that charges incurred through a consultancy contract with Medievalist is a part of the product placement under the implementation guidance paragraph. In addition, the staff salary is also a part of the implementation guidance paragraph as well. Recommendation Due to the shortness of time to turn this research project around, I suggest that we see the more detailed invoices from Medievalist along with the billable hours of the staff salaries allocated to working on the marketing development of a catchy slogan. Please call me at (415) 297-8060 , if you have any further questions concerning these findings. I also suggest that a follow up meeting next week to discuss the additional accumulation which may be needed to better conclude this research into the accounting treatment of your situation. Sincerely, for Golden Gate Associates, Spas IRS Circular 230 Disclosure: To ensure compliance with requirements imposed by the IRS, we inform you that any tax advice contained in this communication (including any attachments) was not intended or written to be used, and cannot be used, for the purpose of (I) avoiding any tax penalty or promoting, marketing or recommending to another party any transaction or matter addressed herein. How to cite Accounting treatment for capitalizing, Papers

Importance of Social Needs and Politics Free Sample for Students

Question: Explain the Importance of Social Needs and Politics in Developing Transportation Programs. Answer: Introduction Social needs are the main causes behind the invention and development of transportation system. During ancient times, transportation system was developed using small wooden carts so that people could move items from one place to another for trade. Nowadays, transportation system not only carries goods from one place to another but also people from one part of the world to another (Agnew, 2014). Transportation has been the main factor behind the growth of different factors like political, economic, social, military and others. Different modes of transport cover water transport (cargo ships, passenger ships and boats, military vessels, etc.), air transport (cargo planes, passenger aircrafts, military aircrafts, rockets, helicopters, etc), railways (passenger trains, cargo trains, etc.) and land transport (trucks, buses, cars, etc.). Problem The main problem is that nowadays, transportation system is influenced so much by social and political factors nowadays that the actual benefits of transportation are getting reduced. Social Problem Due to increasing ownership of personal vehicles, the transportation system is getting disturbed (Wingo Jr, 2016). Too many cars are clogging the roads and public transportation gets delayed. Political Problem With increasing political activities all over the world, various countries are spending heavily on defensive vehicles (Saaty Vargas, 2013). As a result, public transport system is getting ignored and is slowly declining. Significance of the Problem Although the problem is apparently not very significant, it actually has deep lying effects on the different nations. In some countries, transportation defines the financial status and is a large source of income. However, due to heavy spending on defense vehicles as well as personal cars, the public transport is on sharp decline (Whitt, 2014). As a result, the economic backbone of the countries is slowly getting eroded. This is a serious problem for a large number of countries that are not financially strong or even stable. Hence, actions must be taken in order to reduce the expenses on defense vehicles and make more investments on public transport in order to keep the system running. Alternative Actions Two alternative actions are as follows. The countries should have distinct policy and fixed budget for defense vehicles. This budget limit cannot be exceeded and the defense policies should be such that there are no extra requirements for defense vehicles. Moreover, this will also promote global peace. The countries should keep a significant amount of budget for investing in the public transport system in order to promote maintenance and proper running of the system. Recommendations Based on the analysis the following recommendations can be provided. The countries should let their political factors affect the transportation systems as they are the backbones of the countries economy. There should be a budget limit for different types of transports in the countries. Public awareness has to be raised so that for their personal desires, the public transport system does not get affected. This can be done by introducing a car ownership limit for each family and partial payback system against replacement of old and defective cars. References Agnew, J. A. (2014).Place and Politics (Routledge Library Editions: Political Geography): The Geographical Mediation of State and Society(Vol. 1). Routledge. Saaty, T. L., Vargas, L. G. (2013).The logic of priorities: applications of business, energy, health and transportation. Springer Science Business Media. Whitt, J. A. (2014).Urban elites and mass transportation: The dialectics of power. Princeton University Press. Wingo Jr, L. (2016).Transportation and urban land. Routledge.

Analysis of Two Commodity Markovian Inventory System with Lead Time free essay sample

These systems unlike those dealing with single commodity, involve more complexities in the reordering procedures. In the modelling of such systems, initially models were proposed with independently established reorder points. But in situations where several products compete for common storage space or share the same transport facility or are procured from the same source, the above method overlooks potential savings associated with joint ordering and hence may not be optimal. Received November 29, 1999. Revised August 7, 2000. The work was carried out under a Major Research Project funded by University Grants Commission, India. 2001 Korean Society for Computational Applied Mathematics and Korean SIGCAM. 427 428 Anbazhagan and Arivarignan The modelling of multi-item inventory system under joint replenishment has been receiving considerable attention for the past three decades. In continuous review inventory systems, Ballintfy [1964] and Silver [1974] have considered a coordinated reo rdering policy which is represented by the triplet (S, c, s), where the three parameters Si , ci and si are speci? ed for each item i with si ? ci ? Si , under unit sized Poisson demand and constant lead time. We will write a custom essay sample on Analysis of Two Commodity Markovian Inventory System with Lead Time or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In this policy, if the level of i-th commodity at any time is below si , an order is placed for Si ? si items and at the same time, any other item j(= i) with available inventory at or below its can-order level cj , an order is placed so as to bring its level back to its maximum capacity Sj . Subsequently many articles have appeared with models involving the above policy and a more recent article of interest is due to Federgruen, Groenvelt and Tijms [1984], which deals with the general case of compound Poisson demands and nonzero lead times. A review of inventory models under joint replenishment is provided by Goyal and Statir [1989]. Kalpakam and Arivarignan [1993] have introduced (s, S) policy with a single reorder level s de? ned interms of the total number of items in the stock. The supply is assumed to be instantaneous. This policy avoids separate ordering for each commodity. Since a single processing of orders for both commodities has some advantages in situation wherein procurement is made from the same supplies, items are produced on the same machine, or items have to be supplied by the same transport facility. Krishnamoorthy, Iqbal Basha and Lakshmy [1994] have considered a two commodity continuous review inventory system without lead time. In their model, each demand is for one unit of ? rst commodity or one unit of second commodity or one unit of each of commodity 1 and 2, with pre? xed probabilities. Krishnamoorthy and Varghese [1994] have considered a two commodity inventory problem without lead time and with Markov shift in demand for the type of commodity namely †commodity-1†, †commodity-2† or †both commodities†. In this paper a two commodity inventory system with joint reorder level which triggers a reorder for both commodities with an exponentially distributed lead time is considered. The probability distribution of inventory level for both commodities, mean reorder rate and shortage rate in the steady state have been computed. The results are numerically illustrated. 2. Problem formulation Consider a two commodity inventory system with the maximum capacity Si units for i-th commodity (i = 1, 2). It is asssumed that demands for i-th Analysis of two commodity Markovian inventory system with lead time 429 Figure 1. Space of Inventory levels (0, S2 ) (S1, S2 ) (0, s) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ (0, 0) (s, 0) (S1 , 0) commodity are of unit size and having Poisson distribution with parameter ? i (i = 1, 2). The demand process of the two commodities are further assumed to be independent. The reordering policy is to place order for both the commodities when the total net available inventory is equal to s(? (Si ? s)/2) and the ordering quantity will be Qi(= Si ? s), i = 1, 2. The lead time is assumed to be distributed as negative exponential with parameter  µ(gt; 0). The demands that occur during stockout periods are lost. Let I(t) denote the net inventory level at time t. Then the process I = {(I1(t), I2(t)), t ? 0} has the state space E = {(i, j) | i = 0, 1, 2,  ·  ·  · , S1 and j = 0, 1, 2,  ·  ·  · , S2 }.

M. Hulots Vacation essays

M. Hulot's Vacation essays Mr. Hulot=s Vacation (Tati, 1953) is a French comedy with a light touch. The film seems to exist in a time-warp of sorts, depicting a period when French and British tourists mingled on the beach at small resorts with little pretension to be big resorts. The technique of the film is observational from first to last, as if someone had left a camera out on the beach and waited for the roaming M. Hulot to come among and behave oddly in the face of all the different problems associated with a short From the opening frames of the waves quietly coming into shore, the film has an easy-going attitude which suggests a vacation, and while much goes wrong in the course of the film, it is generally of a much quieter sort of chaos than would be seen in the average American film about a vacation going wrong. The film is essentially a silent film, with much owed to the works of Chaplin in America and Max Linder in France, but it is not really a silent film and makes clever use of sound to convey meaning, create and sustain a mood, and point out contrasting attitudes from moment to moment. For instance, the quiet opening marked only by the soothing music and the even more soothing sound of the waves washing ashore is held for a moment as a boat on the beach just sits and waits. There is then a quick cut to the train station where the noisy vacationers are arriving, carrying suitcases, yelling to one another, seeming like children herded from place to place with no clear sense of where they are going. The soothing sounds of the beach shift to the jarring and ongoing din of the train station, two aspects of a vacation, the getting there and the enjoying being there. Tati=s inventive use of sound is apparent in this opening as well, for the calls of the train conductor are mere electronic grunts, too difficult to hear to be called a language. Tati is showing here that there is no need for l...

Law and Human Trafficking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Law and Human Trafficking - Essay Example The immigration laws that should prevent trafficking are not stringent thereby, creating the conducive environment that encourages human trafficking (Theresa 275). This has increased the cases of Unaccompanied Alien Children (UAC). Human trafficking has also been on the rise because some of the officers working at the immigration offices and the Office of Refugee and Resettlement (ORR) are also involved in the evil act of human trafficking because of the huge profits that accrue to them from the sale of the children and the adults. This as noted by the US house Judiciary chairman Rep. Bob Goodlatte, makes over 90% of the UACs cases not being presented to the courts for justice to be sought for the victims (Theresa 275). It is, therefore, important to note that human trafficking has become a crisis because of the laxity in the enforcement of the trafficking laws, not in the absence of the laws.United Nations Definition of Human Trafficking  Human trafficking is considered a serious crime and gross violation of human rights, therefore United Nations have been in the forefront in trying to assist the United States and the affected countries in preventing human trafficking through the implementation of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. This aims at preventing, suppressing and punishers the traffickers (Shelley 115). According to the United Nations definition of Human Trafficking, Article 3, of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol provides the definition of Human Trafficking as â€Å"recruitment, transportation.

Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Case - Essay Example Moore Tires offered Jonathan, who was an employee and owner of Morecedes Tires an employment opportunity that he agreed to. While conducting his routine responsibilities within the new job, the claimant was an employee of Moore Tires and not Morecedes tires, where he had previously worked. While undertaking his duties there, the claimant was injured and sustained significant injuries to his body. As Jonathan was unhooking a trailer, a jack handle from the trailer struck him. He suffered from various broken bones on his face as well as a detached retina. Despite having sustained injuries while undertaking his routine activities, Jonathan was not compensated by Moore tires for these injuries. To determine the status of employment of the claimant to the organisation (Moore Tires), during the time when he sustained injuries, and whether he was undertaking the job that he was supposed to be doing within the company. The kind of claim that Jonathan is seeking can only be made to individuals who are employees of the company and this can be proved. The form of agreement that the claimant had with Moore Tires has not been clearly defined as a formal agreement or an informal agreement. As the proprietor of Morecedes Tires, the claimant had been undertaking other duties assigned by Moore Tires and was paid through Morecedes, which was an independent company. The activities that he was undertaking when he sustained the injuries could similarly be on the same capacity and this has not been defined. The employment contract must be produced to show evidence that the claimant was actually an employee of Moore Tires and not an independent contractor. There is also need to determine the employer’s right of control in the work relationship that existed between the claimant and the employer (Miller, 2012). If the control of the employment terms and condition of work lies within the employer, then the claims that are being made by

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation